How, When and Where

How, When and Where

 COMPLETE CHAPTER NOTES

By Sahil Swe

A. UNDERSTANDING HISTORY AND DATES

The Traditional View of Dates

There was a time when historians were fascinated with dates.

    There were heated debates about the dates on which rulers were crowned or battles were fought.

· In the common-sense notion, history was synonymous with dates.

· You may have heard people say, “I find history boring because it is all about memorising dates.” Is such a conception true?

· History is certainly about changes that occur over time.

· It is about finding out how things were in the past and how things have changed.

· As soon as we compare the past with the present, we refer to time, we talk of “before” and “after”.

• Common perception: History = memorizing dates of battles, coronations, and events
• Historical practice: Historians once focused intensely on precise dates of rulers' lives and major events
•  Modern perspective: While dates provide chronology, history is more about understanding changes over time

B. Why Dates Aren't Everything

Living in the world we do not always ask historical questions about what we see around us.

· We take things for granted, as if what we see has always been in the world we inhabit.

· But most of us have our moments of wonder, when we are curious, and we ask questions that actually are historical.

· Watching someone sip a cup of tea at a roadside tea stall, you may wonder – when did people begin to drink tea or coffee?

· Looking out of the window of a train you may ask yourself – when were railways built and how did people travel long distances before the age of railways?

· Reading the newspaper in the morning you may be curious to know how people got to hear about things before newspapers began to be printed

1. Processes vs. Events: Many historical developments (like tea-drinking habits, railway development) happened over long periods, not specific days

2. Span of Time: Changes in society, economy, and culture can only be understood by looking at approximate periods, not exact dates

3. Example: British rule wasn't established on one date; it evolved through various battles, policies, and administrative changes

Key Insight: Historical thinking means questioning what we take for granted and understanding how things changed over time.

2. ANALYZING HISTORICAL IMAGES: IMPERIAL PROPAGANDA

Figure 1: Brahmans Offering Shastras to Britannia (1782)

Context: Frontispiece to James Rennel's first map of Hindustan

Details:

· Commissioned by: Robert Clive

· Creator: James Rennel, enthusiastic supporter of British conquest

· Depiction: Indian Brahmans presenting ancient texts (Shastras) to Britannia (female symbol of British power)

Imperial Message Analysis:

1. Justification of Rule: Suggests Indians willingly surrendered their culture to British protection

2. Civilizing Mission: Implies Britain was invited to preserve Indian culture

3. Map-Making as Control: Rennel believed maps were essential for domination—knowing territory meant controlling it

4. Hidden Reality: Masks the actual violence and coercion of colonization

Historical Skill: Images must be critically analyzed—they represent the creator's viewpoint, not objective truth.

C. WHICH DATES MATTER? SELECTIVITY IN HISTORY

Why, then, do we continue to associate history with a string of dates?

This association has a reason.There was a time when history was an account of battles and big events.

It was about rulers and their policies.Historians wrote about the year a king was crowned, the year he married, the year he had a child, the year he fought a particular war, the year he died, and the year the next ruler succeeded to the throne.

For events such as these,specific dates can be determined, and in histories such as these, debates about dates continue to be important

The Problem of Selection

· Criteria for importance: Dates become significant based on what historians choose to focus on

· Example: British histories emphasized dates of Governor-Generals' terms; Indian social histories would choose different dates

· Historical narratives shape which dates we remember

Need for New Perspectives

· Problem: When history focuses only on rulers, ordinary people's lives disappear

· Solution: Need different periodization and different significant dates

· Result: Shifting focus reveals new important dates (social reforms, peasant movements, cultural changes)

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4. ADVERTISEMENTS AS HISTORICAL SOURCES

Figure 2: Lipton Tea Advertisement (1922)

What it shows:

· Prince Arthur (Queen Victoria's son) as Duke of Connaught

· Indian palace background

· Claim: "Royalty all over the world" drinks Lipton tea

Historical Insights:

1. Creating Markets: Advertisements manufactured desire for new products

2. Colonial Marketing: Linked British royalty with Indian imagery to sell products

3. Cultural Fusion: Used Indian symbols to market British-controlled products

4. Taste Creation: Showed how colonialism changed consumption patterns

Important: Even commercial materials reveal historical attitudes and strategies.

---· Paintings glorified British officials as powerful, authoritative figures

· Part of creating an image of British superiority and effective rule.

D. Which dates?

· By what criteria do we choose a set of dates as important?

· The dates we select, the dates around which we compose our story of the past, are not important on their own.

· They become vital because we focus on a particular set of events as important. Dates become significant based on what historians choose to focus on.

· If our focus of study changes, if we begin to look at new issues, a new set of dates will appear significant.

· Consider an example. In the histories written by British historians in India, the rule of each Governor General was important.

· These histories began with the rule of the first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and ended with the last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten.

In separate chapters, we read about the deeds of others—Hastings, Wellesley, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning, Lawrence, Lytton, Ripon, Curzon, Harding, Irwin. It was a seemingly never-ending succession of Governor Generals and Viceroys.

All the dates in these history books were linked to these personalities – to their activities, policies and achievements.

It was as if there was nothing outside their lives that was important for us to know.

The chronology of their lives marked the different chapters of the history of British India.

Conclusion: Historical narratives shape which dates we remember.

Can we not write about the history of this period in a different way?

How do we focus on the activities of different groups and classes in Indian society within the format of this history of Governor-Generals?

 Example: British histories emphasized dates of Governor-Generals' terms; Indian social histories would choose different dates

·British-Centered History

Structure: Histories organized around Governor-Generals:

· Warren Hastings (first, 1773) to Lord Mountbatten (last Viceroy)

· Chapters focused on their policies, achievements, and lives

· Consequence: Indian people's experiences were marginalized

Fig. 3 – Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General in 1773

While history books narrated the deeds of Governor-Generals, biographies glorified them as persons, and paintings projected them as powerful figures.

E. How do we periodise?

PERIODIZATION: DIVIDING HISTORY

James Mill's Classification (1817)

Three Periods:

1. Hindu period

2. Muslim period

3. British period

Problems with this approach:

1. Religious Labeling: Defines eras by rulers' religion, ignoring diversity

2. Exclusion: Suggests only rulers' faith mattered; others' experiences irrelevant

3. Bias: Presents British rule as "progressive," earlier periods as "backward"

4. Oversimplification: India always had multiple faiths coexisting

Mill's Viewpoint: Believed Asian societies were "uncivilized" and needed British rule to progress

Alternative: Ancient, Medieval, Modern

Problems:

· Borrowed from European history

· "Modern" implies science, democracy, equality—which colonial India didn't have

· British India lacked freedom, equality, economic growth

Best Alternative: Colonial Period

F. Why "colonial" works better

· Describes political subjugation

· Acknowledges economic exploitation

· Recognizes social and cultural changes under foreign rule

Definition of Colonialism: Process where one country conquers and controls another, leading to:

· Political domination

· Economic exploitation (revenue collection, cheap goods, export crops)

· Social and cultural transformation

G. SOURCES OF HISTORY: HOW WE KNOW THE PAST

A. Official British Records

Why so detailed?

· British belief: Writing = clarity, order, control

· Everything documented: instructions, policies, agreements, investigations

· Created administrative culture of memos, notings, reports

Preservation System:

· Record rooms at all administrative levels (village to provincial)

· National Archives of India (established 1920s, near Viceregal Palace)

· Initially handwritten by calligraphists, later printed

Figure 4: National Archives Building

· Location near Viceregal Palace shows importance in British mindset

· Architecture reflects imperial grandeur and permanence

· Example of official correspondence

· Shows bureaucratic language and military perspective

· Focus on control, arrest numbers, "situation under control"

Source 1

Reports to the

Home Department

In 1946 the colonial

government in India was

trying to put down a mutiny

that broke out on the ships

of the Royal Indian Navy.

Here is a sample of the

kind of reports the Home

Department got from the

different dockyards:

Bombay: Arrangements

have been made for the

Army to take over ships

and establishment. Royal

Navy ships are remaining

outside the harbour.

Karachi: 301 mutineers

are under arrest and a few

more strongly suspected

are to be arrested … All

establishments … are

under military guard.

Vizagapatnam: The

positionis completely

under control and no

violence has occurred.

Military guards have

been placed on ships

and establishments.

No further trouble is

expected except that

a few men may refuse

to work.

Director of Intelligence, HQ. India

Command, Situation Report No. 7.

File No. 5/21/46 Home (Political),

Government of India

Source 1: 1946 Mutiny Reports

H. Surveys: Knowing to Control

Why surveys? "To administer effectively, must know thoroughly"

Types of Surveys:

1. Revenue surveys: Land, crops, soil quality

2. Census (every 10 years from late 1800s): Population, caste, religion, occupation

3. Specialized surveys: Botanical, zoological, archaeological, anthropological, forest

Figure 5: Custard-Apple Plant Drawing (1770s)

· Part of botanical surveys

· Local artists drew specimens

· Shows colonial knowledge-gathering: classifying, documenting nature for exploitation

Figure 6: Mapping Bengal (1832)

· James Prinsep's drawing

· Scientific instruments emphasized—projecting "rational," "systematic" approach

· Mapping as tool of control and resource identification

I. Limitations of Official Records

What they DON'T show:

· People's feelings, thoughts, experiences

· Reasons behind actions

· Perspectives of ordinary Indians

They show ONLY:

· Officials' viewpoints

· Government interests

· What authorities wanted preserved

J. Alternative Sources: Beyond Official Documents

Types:

1. Personal writings: Diaries, autobiographies, travel accounts

2. Popular literature: Booklets, poems, novels sold in bazaars

3. Newspapers: Public debates, issues, advertisements

4. Oral histories: Stories, songs, memories

Source 2: Newspaper Report on Police Strike (1946)

· From Hindustan Times, March 22, 1946

· Reports police protest over bad food

· Key difference from official reports: Includes direct quotes, human experiences, grievances

· Shows people's perspective vs. government perspective

K. Challenges with Sources

Literacy Bias: Most sources created by literate people

Missing Voices:Tribals, peasants, workers, poor often absent

Solution:Creative research methods, reading between lines, using multiple sources

Figure 7: "Mutinous Sepoys Share the Loot" (1857 Rebellion)

· British-created image showing rebels as greedy, vicious

· Must be critically analyzed—represents British fear and prejudice

· Example of how visual sources carry bias

 ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

Activity 1: Analyzing Figure 1

Task: Write paragraph explaining imperial perception

Key points to include:

· Voluntary surrender imagery

· Britain as protector, not conqueror

· Justification of colonial rule

· Map-making as tool of control

Activity 2: Personal History Periodization

Task: Interview family member, divide life into periods

Skills practiced:

· Selecting significant events

· Creating coherent narratives

· Understanding that periodization reflects perspective

· Recognizing different ways to divide time

Activity 3: Comparing Sources 1 and 2

Observations:

· Source 1 (Official): Formal, factual, focus on control, numbers

· Source 2 (Newspaper): Human interest, quotes, emotions, grievances

· Conclusion: Different sources provide different perspectives; need both for complete picture

Let's Imagine Exercise

Scenario: Historian studying agriculture changes in tribal area post-independence

Possible sources:

· Government agricultural reports

· Oral histories with tribal elders

· Land records

· Photographs

· Local newspapers

· NGO reports

· Satellite imagery over time

CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY

Important Terms

1. Colonialism: Political, economic, social, and cultural domination of one country by another

2. Periodization: Dividing history into periods based on characteristics

3. Archives: Places where historical documents are preserved

4. Surveys: Systematic collection of data about people, land, resources

5. Sources: Materials from which historians learn about the past

6. Bias: Prejudice in favor of or against something, affecting historical interpretation

Historical Skills Developed

1. Source Analysis: Critically examining documents, images, etc.

2. Perspective Recognition: Understanding different viewpoints

3. Periodization: Creating meaningful historical divisions

4. Questioning Assumptions: Not taking historical narratives for granted

CHAPTER SUMMARY: MAJOR TAKEAWAYS

About Dates:

· Dates provide chronology but don't capture all historical processes

· Importance of dates depends on historical focus

· Many changes happen over spans of time, not specific dates

About Sources:

· Multiple types: official records, surveys, newspapers, personal accounts

· Each has strengths and limitations

· Need to consult multiple sources for balanced understanding

About Perspectives:

· History has traditionally focused on rulers; need to include ordinary people

· Colonial history needs to be studied critically, recognizing bias

· Different groups experienced colonialism differently

About Colonialism:

· Not just political rule but economic exploitation and cultural change

· Affected different classes and groups in different ways

· Requires study of multiple "pasts" (hence "Our Pasts" in plural)

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 History Chapter 1

The Solutions for Chapter 1, How, When and Where are given below. 

Let's Recall 

1. State whether true or false:

(a) James Mill divided Indian history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim, Christian.

(b) Official documents help us understand what the people of the country think.

(c) The British thought surveys were important for effective administration.

Answer.

(a) False

(b) False

(c) True

Let's Discuss

2. What is the problem with the periodisation of Indian history that James Mill offers?

Answer. a) James Mill divided history on the basis of the religion of the rulers of the times. However, a variety of faiths existed simultaneously in these periods.

b) This periodization ignores the social, political and economic changes from one era to another. One cannot refer to any era as the era of any particular religion.

c) The main problem with the periodization of Indian history is that Mill only looked from the point of the rulers, not from the point of view of native Indian.

d) Mill, through his periodization, suggested that British rule could civilize India.

e) Mill even suggested that the British should conquer all the Indian territories to ensure the enlightenment and happiness of all. He thinks that India was not capable of progress without British help

3. Why did the British preserve official documents?

Answer. ● The British preserved official documents because they liked to have permanent record of every instruction, plan, policy, agreement, etc.

● They believed that things could be properly studied and debated once we had such records.

● These documents help in studying and debating.

● This documentation process provides administrative culture of memos, noting and reports.

● The preserved documents could be used as a point of reference when ever required.

4. How will the information historians get from old  newspapers be different from that found in police reports? 

Answer.  Newspaper reports have nearly always been edited and often only provide an outline of the events. Note that though old newspapers can be useful, they are not normally regarded as reliable sources. However, the information from old newspapers tells us about the feelings and actions of other (common) people of the country.

On the other hand, one would expect police reports to be more detailed but the information in police reports tells us only about what officials thought, what they were interested in and what they wished to preserve for posterity

Let’s do

5. Can you think of examples of surveys in your world today? Think about how toy companies get information about what young people enjoy playing with or how the government finds out about the number of young people in school. What can a historian derive from such surveys?

Answer. Yes, there are many examples of surveys in world today. The administrative, botanical and market surveys help to know about the needs and aspirations of the people.

The government finds out about the information of employees through the records and reports of school authorities